Pu Chou Mountain
Alternative Names (異名):
Pu Chou Mountain, 不周山, Mount Buzhou
Pu Chou Mountain is important in the Chinese mythological explanation for why the Earth's axis is tilted. According to Chinese mythology, a horned monster, Kung Kung, tried to become emperor. When he failed, he was so angry that he impaled Mount Pu Chou on his horns. This broke the column of the sky, and severed its link with earth. In the northwest the sky collapsed. Hence the sun, moon and stars slipped towards the northwest and the earth tilted to the southeast.
Links
不周山 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Buzhou
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pu_Chou_Mountain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mythology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_mythology
Chinese mythology | Chinese mythology stubs
Tuesday, September 3, 2002
Saturday, February 16, 2002
[Norse] Creation Myth
Norse Creation Myth
The Norse creation story has heaps of mythic elements, from the primeval giant Ymir to the cow Audhumla the reader is beseiged with mythic archetypes. This is a problem for the researcher trying to sort out true heathen tradition from the trappings of Christianity.
What the Eddas Say
In the beginning there was the void. And the void was called Ginnungagap. What does Ginnungagap mean? Yawning gap, beginning gap, gap with magical potential, mighty gap; these are a few of the educated guesses. Along with the void existed Niflheim the land of fog and ice in the north and Muspelheim the land of fire in the south. There seems to be a bit of confusion as to whether or not these existed after Ginnungagap or along side of it from the beginning.
In Niflheim was a spring called Hvergelmir from which the Elivagar (eleven rivers - Svol, Gunnthra, Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Slidr, Hrid, Sylg, Ylg, Vid, Leiptr, and Gioll) flowed. The Elivargar froze layer upon layer until it filled in the northerly portion of the gap. Concurrently the southern portion was being filled by sparks and molten material from Muspelheim.
The mix of fire and ice caused part of the Elivagar to melt forming the figures Ymir the primeval giant and the cow Audhumla. The cow's milk was Ymir's food. While Ymir slept his under arm sweat begat two frost giants, one male one female, while his two legs begat another male.
While Ymir was busy procreating Audhumla was busy eating. Her nourishment came from licking the salty ice. Her incessant licking formed the god Buri. He had a son named Bor who was the father of Odin, Vili, and Ve.
For some reason the sons of Bor decided to kill poor Ymir. His blood caused a flood which killed all of the frost giants except for two, Bergelmir and his wife, who escaped the deluge in their boat.
Odin, Vili, and Ve put Ymir's corpse into the middle of ginnungagap and created the earth and sky from it. They also created the stars, sun, and moon from sparks coming out of Muspelheim.
Finally, the brothers happened upon two logs lying on the beach and created the first two humans Ask [Ash] and Embla [vine] from them.
The Norse creation story has heaps of mythic elements, from the primeval giant Ymir to the cow Audhumla the reader is beseiged with mythic archetypes. This is a problem for the researcher trying to sort out true heathen tradition from the trappings of Christianity.
What the Eddas Say
In the beginning there was the void. And the void was called Ginnungagap. What does Ginnungagap mean? Yawning gap, beginning gap, gap with magical potential, mighty gap; these are a few of the educated guesses. Along with the void existed Niflheim the land of fog and ice in the north and Muspelheim the land of fire in the south. There seems to be a bit of confusion as to whether or not these existed after Ginnungagap or along side of it from the beginning.
In Niflheim was a spring called Hvergelmir from which the Elivagar (eleven rivers - Svol, Gunnthra, Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Slidr, Hrid, Sylg, Ylg, Vid, Leiptr, and Gioll) flowed. The Elivargar froze layer upon layer until it filled in the northerly portion of the gap. Concurrently the southern portion was being filled by sparks and molten material from Muspelheim.
The mix of fire and ice caused part of the Elivagar to melt forming the figures Ymir the primeval giant and the cow Audhumla. The cow's milk was Ymir's food. While Ymir slept his under arm sweat begat two frost giants, one male one female, while his two legs begat another male.
While Ymir was busy procreating Audhumla was busy eating. Her nourishment came from licking the salty ice. Her incessant licking formed the god Buri. He had a son named Bor who was the father of Odin, Vili, and Ve.
For some reason the sons of Bor decided to kill poor Ymir. His blood caused a flood which killed all of the frost giants except for two, Bergelmir and his wife, who escaped the deluge in their boat.
Odin, Vili, and Ve put Ymir's corpse into the middle of ginnungagap and created the earth and sky from it. They also created the stars, sun, and moon from sparks coming out of Muspelheim.
Finally, the brothers happened upon two logs lying on the beach and created the first two humans Ask [Ash] and Embla [vine] from them.
[Norse] The Norse Cosmology
[Norse] The Norse Cosmology
Muddled as the depiction which we are given in the Prose Edda is, we are able to discern a number of powerful cosmological ideas in the Norse vision of the universe.
Yggdrasil
The Norse world tree, omnipresent, its branches extending over all the known worlds, its roots extending into three of them. The name means Odin's Horse referring to the time he "rode" upon the tree and learned the runes. It is also at times referred to as Hoddmimir, Tree of Mimir, and Lærad or Lerad. It is usually called an Ash tree.
One of Yggdrasil's roots extends into Asgard, a second root extends into the world of the frost giants while the third is in Niflheim. This is Snorri's description which, of course, differs from that in the Poetic Edda. Grimnismal has the roots extending into the giants realm, Hel's realm, and one into Midgard.
An eagle sits in the branches of the tree and between its eyes perches a hawk. There is a squirrel called Ratatosk which scurries between the eagle and Nidhogg carrying messages. Nidhogg is the serpent which gnaws at Yggdrasil's Niflheim root.
Along with this menagerie are four stags running in the branches eating the leaves, Heidrun the goat and Eikthyrmir the hart also eating leaves. With all the munching going on the tree needs tending - that is the task of the Norns at Urd's well under one of the roots.
The Norns pour water over the tree every day keeping its bark white. The tree produces honeydew and also berries which help women with pregancy. It appears to be the giver / nourisher of life so it is not surprising when we read that the first humans Ask and Embla were created from trees (one being an Ash) or that two humans Lif and Leifthrasir will hide in the tree during Ragnarok with the tree's honeydew sustaining them until they can go on to restart humanity.
The world tree was a symbol common to many societies. The tree specifically connecting the three regions of man, heaven, and the underworld appears in eastern mythology. Also Odin's nine night suspension in the tree's branches is similar to Finnish shamanistic practices with a nine night stay in a birch tree (Puhvel, 194).
Asgard
The abode of the Aesir and the Vanir after the two tribes were at peace.
Midgard
The abode of humans. It means middle earth or middle garden.
Vanaheim
The abode of the Vanir before the peace.
Alfheim
The abode of the light elfs and their ruler, Frey.
Niflheim
A region of cold. Hel's realm is here (in some sources).
Hel
The land of the dead. The way to this realm was through the land of the mountain giants. The connection between this and Niflheim is often confusing. Hel is also the goddess of the underworld.
Jotunheim
The abode of the Jotuns -- giants.
Muspelheim
A region of fire. The fire giants -- sons of muspel -- live here, ruled by Surt.
Svartalfheim
The abode of the dark elves -- dwarves. It is underground.
Nidavellir
The abode of the dwarves which are also called dark elves.
Muddled as the depiction which we are given in the Prose Edda is, we are able to discern a number of powerful cosmological ideas in the Norse vision of the universe.
Yggdrasil
The Norse world tree, omnipresent, its branches extending over all the known worlds, its roots extending into three of them. The name means Odin's Horse referring to the time he "rode" upon the tree and learned the runes. It is also at times referred to as Hoddmimir, Tree of Mimir, and Lærad or Lerad. It is usually called an Ash tree.
One of Yggdrasil's roots extends into Asgard, a second root extends into the world of the frost giants while the third is in Niflheim. This is Snorri's description which, of course, differs from that in the Poetic Edda. Grimnismal has the roots extending into the giants realm, Hel's realm, and one into Midgard.
An eagle sits in the branches of the tree and between its eyes perches a hawk. There is a squirrel called Ratatosk which scurries between the eagle and Nidhogg carrying messages. Nidhogg is the serpent which gnaws at Yggdrasil's Niflheim root.
Along with this menagerie are four stags running in the branches eating the leaves, Heidrun the goat and Eikthyrmir the hart also eating leaves. With all the munching going on the tree needs tending - that is the task of the Norns at Urd's well under one of the roots.
The Norns pour water over the tree every day keeping its bark white. The tree produces honeydew and also berries which help women with pregancy. It appears to be the giver / nourisher of life so it is not surprising when we read that the first humans Ask and Embla were created from trees (one being an Ash) or that two humans Lif and Leifthrasir will hide in the tree during Ragnarok with the tree's honeydew sustaining them until they can go on to restart humanity.
The world tree was a symbol common to many societies. The tree specifically connecting the three regions of man, heaven, and the underworld appears in eastern mythology. Also Odin's nine night suspension in the tree's branches is similar to Finnish shamanistic practices with a nine night stay in a birch tree (Puhvel, 194).
Asgard
The abode of the Aesir and the Vanir after the two tribes were at peace.
Midgard
The abode of humans. It means middle earth or middle garden.
Vanaheim
The abode of the Vanir before the peace.
Alfheim
The abode of the light elfs and their ruler, Frey.
Niflheim
A region of cold. Hel's realm is here (in some sources).
Hel
The land of the dead. The way to this realm was through the land of the mountain giants. The connection between this and Niflheim is often confusing. Hel is also the goddess of the underworld.
Jotunheim
The abode of the Jotuns -- giants.
Muspelheim
A region of fire. The fire giants -- sons of muspel -- live here, ruled by Surt.
Svartalfheim
The abode of the dark elves -- dwarves. It is underground.
Nidavellir
The abode of the dwarves which are also called dark elves.
Thursday, February 1, 2001
Diyu (地獄)
Diyu (地獄)
Diyu (simplified Chinese: 地狱; traditional Chinese: 地獄; pinyin: Dìyù; Wade-Giles: Ti-yü; literally "earth prison"; Japanese: 地獄 Jigoku; Korean: 지옥 Jiok, literally: "hell" or "underworld"; Sanskrit: नरक "Naraka") is the realm of the dead or "hell" in Chinese mythology. It is very loosely based on a combination of the Buddhist concept of Naraka (Sanskrit: नरक, Ch: 那落迦), traditional Chinese beliefs about the afterlife and a variety of popular expansions and re-interpretations of these two traditions.
Diyu is typically depicted as an underground maze with various levels and chambers, to which souls are taken after death to atone for their sins committed when they were alive. The exact number of levels in Diyu and their associated deities differ according to the Buddhist or Taoist perception. Some speak of three to four "courts", while others mention "Ten Courts of Hell", each ruled by a judge (collectively known as the Ten Yama (Sanskrit: यम) Kings), with each court dealing with a different aspect of atonement. Some Chinese legends mention that there are a total of eighteen levels of Hell. The types of punishments meted out also vary according to belief, but most legends speak of sinners being subjected to gruesome tortures until "death", after which they will be restored to their original state and the torture will be repeated again.
Conceptions of Diyu
According to ideas from Taoism, Buddhism and traditional Chinese folk religion, Diyu is a purgatory that serves to punish and renew spirits in preparation for reincarnation into their next life. Many deities are associated with Diyu, whose names and purposes are the subject of much conflicting information.
Some early Chinese cultures speak of people going to Mount Tai, Jiuyuan, Jiuquan or Fengdu after death. In the present-day, Fengdu and the temples on Mount Tai have been rebuilt into tourist attractions, with artistic depictions of hell and the afterlife. Some controversial folk religion planchette writings such as Journeys to the Under-World said there are hells with new punishments, that follow the trend as the world changes.
Ten Courts of Hell
Chinese folk religions were influenced by Buddhism and the concept of the "Ten Courts of Hell" began. In Chinese mythology, the Jade Emperor put King Yama in charge of overseeing the affairs in Diyu. King Yama divided Diyu into ten courts later, each overseen by a "Yama King", while King Yama remained as the sovereign ruler of hell. The following is a list of the Ten Yama Kings:
Jiang, King of Qinguang (秦廣王蔣) – believed to be Jiang Ziwen of the Han Dynasty
Li, King of Chujiang (楚江王歷)
Yu, King of Songdi (宋帝王余)
Lü, King of Wuguan (五官王呂)
Bao, King of Yama (閻羅王包) – believed to be Bao Zheng of the Song Dynasty
Bi, King of Biancheng (卞城王畢)
Dong, King of Taishan (泰山王董)
Huang, King of Dushi (都市王黃)
Lu, King of Pingdeng (平等王陸)
Xue, King of Zhuanlun (轉輪王薛)
Eighteen levels of hell
In some literatures, there are references to eighteen types or subtypes of hells, or eighteen hells for each type of punishment, rather than just eighteen levels of hell. There are folk variants of the eighteen hells in full chart of the sea and land and Fengdu. Some religious or literature books said that wrongdoers who were not punished when they were alive are punished in the hells after death.
The concept of the eighteen hells started in the Tang Dynasty. The Buddhist text Wen Diyu Jing (問地獄經) mentioned 134 worlds of hell, but was simplified to eighteen levels of hell for convenience. The following is a list of common punishments and tortures in the eighteen levels of hell. In most tortures, the sinner's body is mutilated or dismembered and will be restored to its original form after the punishment for the torture to repeat again.
Mountain of knives – sinners are made to shed blood by climbing a mountain with sharp blades sticking out. Some depictions show offenders climbing trees with knives instead of mountains.
Cauldron torture – sinners are fried in oil cauldrons. Some depictions show offenders being steamed instead of being fried.
Dismemberment – sinners' bodies are dismembered by various means, including: sawing, carving, slicing into half, mashing/pounding into pulp, crushed by heavy rocks/boulders, being run over by vehicles
Grinding torture – sinners are put into a grinding machine and ground into a bloody pulp
Tortures involving fire
Burning – sinners are set aflame/cast into fiery infernos
Paolao torture – sinners are stripped naked and made to climb a large metal cylinder, with a fire lit at its base.
Boiling liquid torture – sinners have a boiling liquid forced down their throats
Tortures involving removal of body parts/organs
Tongue-ripping
Eye-gouging
Heart-digging
Disembowelment – sinners have their internal organs dug out
Skinning
Slicing off fingers/toes
World of ice – sinners are frozen in ice. Some depictions show unclothed sinners suffering from frostbite in an icy world. The bodies might fall apart or break into pieces.
Scales and hooks torture – sinners have hooks pierced into their bodies and hung upside down. Some depictions show sinners having nails hammered into their bodies.
Pool of blood – sinners are cast into a pool of blood and suffer bloody deaths, such as blood spilling from all body orifices
Tortures involving animals – sinners are trampled by cattle, gored by animals with horns/tusks, mauled/dismembered/eaten by predators, stung/bitten by poisonous species etc.
Chamber of Avici – the period of suffering in this chamber is the longest and it is reserved for sinners who have committed heinous crimes, including the Five Grave Offences
Alternate names for hell in Chinese language
Among the more common names for the Underworld are (the most common ones near the top):
地獄 – dìyù the underworld prison
地府 – dìfŭ the underworld mansion
黃泉 – huángquán the yellow spring (meaning the origin/source of life and death, possibly a reference to the Yellow River)
陰間 – yīnjiān the shady space (cf. Yin and yang)
陰府 – yīnfŭ the shady mansion
陰司 – yīnsī the shady office
森羅殿 – shēnluó diàn the court of Sinluo
閻羅殿 – yánluó diàn the court of Yanluo
九泉 – jiŭquán the nine springs (origin/source)
重泉 – chóngquán the repeating spring (origin/source)
泉路 – quánlù the spring road
幽冥 – yōumíng the serene darkness
幽壤 – yōurăng the serene land
火炕 – huŏkàng the fire pit
九幽 – jiŭyōu the nine serenities
九原 – jiŭyuán the nine origins
冥府 – míngfŭ the dark mansion
阿鼻 – ābí (pinyin), a Buddhist term, from Sanskrit Avīci, the hell of uninterrupted torture, last and deepest of eight hot hells
足跟 – zúgēn the heel of the foot, also means hells
酆都城 – Fēngdū Chéng, name of a city imagined to contain an entrance to Diyu
And terminologies related to hell:
奈何橋 – the bridge of helplessness
望鄉臺 – the home viewing pavilion
油鍋 – the deep frying wok, one of the tortures in hell.
三塗 – the three tortures, burning by fire (Budd. 火塗), chopping by knife (Budd. 刀塗), tearing apart by beasts (Budd. 血塗, spilling of blood).
Buddhist mythology | Chinese mythology | Afterlife | Hell | Taoist cosmology
Diyu (simplified Chinese: 地狱; traditional Chinese: 地獄; pinyin: Dìyù; Wade-Giles: Ti-yü; literally "earth prison"; Japanese: 地獄 Jigoku; Korean: 지옥 Jiok, literally: "hell" or "underworld"; Sanskrit: नरक "Naraka") is the realm of the dead or "hell" in Chinese mythology. It is very loosely based on a combination of the Buddhist concept of Naraka (Sanskrit: नरक, Ch: 那落迦), traditional Chinese beliefs about the afterlife and a variety of popular expansions and re-interpretations of these two traditions.
Diyu is typically depicted as an underground maze with various levels and chambers, to which souls are taken after death to atone for their sins committed when they were alive. The exact number of levels in Diyu and their associated deities differ according to the Buddhist or Taoist perception. Some speak of three to four "courts", while others mention "Ten Courts of Hell", each ruled by a judge (collectively known as the Ten Yama (Sanskrit: यम) Kings), with each court dealing with a different aspect of atonement. Some Chinese legends mention that there are a total of eighteen levels of Hell. The types of punishments meted out also vary according to belief, but most legends speak of sinners being subjected to gruesome tortures until "death", after which they will be restored to their original state and the torture will be repeated again.
Conceptions of Diyu
According to ideas from Taoism, Buddhism and traditional Chinese folk religion, Diyu is a purgatory that serves to punish and renew spirits in preparation for reincarnation into their next life. Many deities are associated with Diyu, whose names and purposes are the subject of much conflicting information.
Some early Chinese cultures speak of people going to Mount Tai, Jiuyuan, Jiuquan or Fengdu after death. In the present-day, Fengdu and the temples on Mount Tai have been rebuilt into tourist attractions, with artistic depictions of hell and the afterlife. Some controversial folk religion planchette writings such as Journeys to the Under-World said there are hells with new punishments, that follow the trend as the world changes.
Ten Courts of Hell
Chinese folk religions were influenced by Buddhism and the concept of the "Ten Courts of Hell" began. In Chinese mythology, the Jade Emperor put King Yama in charge of overseeing the affairs in Diyu. King Yama divided Diyu into ten courts later, each overseen by a "Yama King", while King Yama remained as the sovereign ruler of hell. The following is a list of the Ten Yama Kings:
Jiang, King of Qinguang (秦廣王蔣) – believed to be Jiang Ziwen of the Han Dynasty
Li, King of Chujiang (楚江王歷)
Yu, King of Songdi (宋帝王余)
Lü, King of Wuguan (五官王呂)
Bao, King of Yama (閻羅王包) – believed to be Bao Zheng of the Song Dynasty
Bi, King of Biancheng (卞城王畢)
Dong, King of Taishan (泰山王董)
Huang, King of Dushi (都市王黃)
Lu, King of Pingdeng (平等王陸)
Xue, King of Zhuanlun (轉輪王薛)
Eighteen levels of hell
In some literatures, there are references to eighteen types or subtypes of hells, or eighteen hells for each type of punishment, rather than just eighteen levels of hell. There are folk variants of the eighteen hells in full chart of the sea and land and Fengdu. Some religious or literature books said that wrongdoers who were not punished when they were alive are punished in the hells after death.
The concept of the eighteen hells started in the Tang Dynasty. The Buddhist text Wen Diyu Jing (問地獄經) mentioned 134 worlds of hell, but was simplified to eighteen levels of hell for convenience. The following is a list of common punishments and tortures in the eighteen levels of hell. In most tortures, the sinner's body is mutilated or dismembered and will be restored to its original form after the punishment for the torture to repeat again.
Mountain of knives – sinners are made to shed blood by climbing a mountain with sharp blades sticking out. Some depictions show offenders climbing trees with knives instead of mountains.
Cauldron torture – sinners are fried in oil cauldrons. Some depictions show offenders being steamed instead of being fried.
Dismemberment – sinners' bodies are dismembered by various means, including: sawing, carving, slicing into half, mashing/pounding into pulp, crushed by heavy rocks/boulders, being run over by vehicles
Grinding torture – sinners are put into a grinding machine and ground into a bloody pulp
Tortures involving fire
Burning – sinners are set aflame/cast into fiery infernos
Paolao torture – sinners are stripped naked and made to climb a large metal cylinder, with a fire lit at its base.
Boiling liquid torture – sinners have a boiling liquid forced down their throats
Tortures involving removal of body parts/organs
Tongue-ripping
Eye-gouging
Heart-digging
Disembowelment – sinners have their internal organs dug out
Skinning
Slicing off fingers/toes
World of ice – sinners are frozen in ice. Some depictions show unclothed sinners suffering from frostbite in an icy world. The bodies might fall apart or break into pieces.
Scales and hooks torture – sinners have hooks pierced into their bodies and hung upside down. Some depictions show sinners having nails hammered into their bodies.
Pool of blood – sinners are cast into a pool of blood and suffer bloody deaths, such as blood spilling from all body orifices
Tortures involving animals – sinners are trampled by cattle, gored by animals with horns/tusks, mauled/dismembered/eaten by predators, stung/bitten by poisonous species etc.
Chamber of Avici – the period of suffering in this chamber is the longest and it is reserved for sinners who have committed heinous crimes, including the Five Grave Offences
Alternate names for hell in Chinese language
Among the more common names for the Underworld are (the most common ones near the top):
地獄 – dìyù the underworld prison
地府 – dìfŭ the underworld mansion
黃泉 – huángquán the yellow spring (meaning the origin/source of life and death, possibly a reference to the Yellow River)
陰間 – yīnjiān the shady space (cf. Yin and yang)
陰府 – yīnfŭ the shady mansion
陰司 – yīnsī the shady office
森羅殿 – shēnluó diàn the court of Sinluo
閻羅殿 – yánluó diàn the court of Yanluo
九泉 – jiŭquán the nine springs (origin/source)
重泉 – chóngquán the repeating spring (origin/source)
泉路 – quánlù the spring road
幽冥 – yōumíng the serene darkness
幽壤 – yōurăng the serene land
火炕 – huŏkàng the fire pit
九幽 – jiŭyōu the nine serenities
九原 – jiŭyuán the nine origins
冥府 – míngfŭ the dark mansion
阿鼻 – ābí (pinyin), a Buddhist term, from Sanskrit Avīci, the hell of uninterrupted torture, last and deepest of eight hot hells
足跟 – zúgēn the heel of the foot, also means hells
酆都城 – Fēngdū Chéng, name of a city imagined to contain an entrance to Diyu
And terminologies related to hell:
奈何橋 – the bridge of helplessness
望鄉臺 – the home viewing pavilion
油鍋 – the deep frying wok, one of the tortures in hell.
三塗 – the three tortures, burning by fire (Budd. 火塗), chopping by knife (Budd. 刀塗), tearing apart by beasts (Budd. 血塗, spilling of blood).
Buddhist mythology | Chinese mythology | Afterlife | Hell | Taoist cosmology
Sunday, November 12, 2000
Gesta Danorum
Gesta Danorum
Gesta Danorum ("Deeds of the Danes") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th century author Saxo Grammaticus ("Saxo the Literate", literally "the Grammarian"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark and is an essential source for the nation's early history. It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the history of Estonia and Livonia.
Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of Archbishop Absalon, Gesta Danorum describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century. In addition, Gesta Danorum offers singular reflections on European affairs in the High Middle Ages from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe.
Books
The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1-9, which deal with Norse mythology, and Books 10-16, which deal with medieval history. Book 9 ends with Gorm the Old, the first factual documented King of Denmark. The last three books (14-16), describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against Slavic peoples (the Northern Crusades), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes (Polabian Slavs, Pomeranians) and Slavic paganism. Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple at Rügen Island.
Chronology
When exactly Gesta Danorum was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that Gesta Danorum was not finished before 1208. The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King Canute VI of Denmark subduing Pomerania under Duke Bogislaw I, in 1186. However the preface of the work, dictated to Archbishop Anders Sunesen, mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the Elbe river in 1208.
Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with Absalon's appointment to Archbishop in 1178. Since this book is so large and Absalon has greater importance than King Valdemar I, this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own. It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I's last years and King Canute VI's first years.
It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13. Svend Aagesen's history of Denmark, Brevis Historia Regum Dacie (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about "The king-father and his sons," which would be King Sweyn Estridson, in Books 11, 12, and 13. He would later add the first ten books. This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface.
Manuscripts
The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the Angers Fragment, Lassen Fragment, Kall-Rasmussen Fragment and Plesner Fragment. The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in Saxo’s own handwriting. The other ones are copies from ca. 1275. All four fragments are in the collection of the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark.
The text has, however, survived. In 1510-1512, Christiern Pedersen, a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo’s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo’s work came from a summary located in Chronica Jutensis, from around 1342, called Compendium Saxonis. It is also in this summary that the name Gesta Danorum is found. The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown.
Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop Birger Gunnersen of Lund, modern Sweden, which he gladly lent him. With the help of printer Jodocus Badius, Gesta Danorum was refined and printed.
Printing
The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo’s works is Christiern Pedersen's Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, March 15, 1514 under the title of Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae ("History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes"). The edition features the following colophon: ...impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana. (the Ides of March, 1514).
The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin:
Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae.
Danish language:
De danske Kongers og Heltes Historie, skrevet I pyntelig Stil for over 300 Aar siden af Saxo Grammaticus, en Sjællandsfar og Provst ved Kirken I Roskilde, og nu for første Gang oplyst ved et Register og omhyggeligt trykt.
English language:
Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a Sjællander and also provost of the church of Roskilde, over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation.
Latin versions
The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen's Latin Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae. There exist a number different translations today, some complete, some partial:
Christiern Pedersen, published 1514, title: Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae
Johannes Oporinus, published 1534, title: Saxonis Grammatici Danorum Historiae Libri XVI
Philip Lonicer, published 1576, title: Danica Historia Libris XVI
Stephan Hansen Stephanius, published 1645, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historiæ Danicæ Libri XVI
Christian Adolph Klotz, published 1771, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historiae Danicae libri XVI
Peter Erasmus Müller, published 1839, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica
Alfred Holder, published 1886, title: Saxonis Grammatici Gesta Danorum
Jørgen Olrik & Hans Ræder, published 1931, title: Saxonis Gesta Danorum
Karsten Friis-Jensen, published 2005, title: Gesta Danorum ISBN 978-87-12-04025-5, ISBN 87-12-04025-8
Danish translations
Christiern Pedersen, never published ca. 1540, Lost
Jon Tursons, never published ca. 1555, Lost
Anders Sørensen Vedel, published 1575, title: Den Danske Krønicke
Sejer Schousbölle, published 1752, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica
Nicolai Grundtvig, published 1818-1822, title: Danmarks Krønike af Saxo Grammaticus
Frederik Winkel Horn, published 1898, title: Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike
Jørgen Olrik, published 1908-1912, title: Sakses Danesaga
Peter Zeeberg, published 2000, title: Saxos Danmarkshistorie ISBN 87-12-03496-7 (complete) ISBN 87-12-03534-3 (vol 1) ISBN 87-12-03535-1 (vol 2)
English translations
Oliver Elton, published 1894, title: The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus
Peter Fisher and Hilda Ellis Davidson, published 1979-1980, title: Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes
Eric Christiansen, published 1980-1981, title: Saxo Grammaticus: Danorum regum heroumque historia, books X-XVI
William F. Hansen, published 1983, title: Saxo Grammaticus and the life of Hamlet
Other translations
Hermann Jantzen, published 1900, title: Saxo Grammaticus. Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte
Ludovica Koch & Maria Adele Cipolla, published 1993, title: Sassone Grammatico: Gesta dei re e degli eroi danesi
Yukio Taniguchi, published 1993, title: Sakuso Guramatikusu: Denmakujin no jiseki
Santiago Ibáñez Lluch, published 1999, title: Saxo Gramático: Historia Danesa
Gesta Danorum is also translated partially in other English, French and German releases.
Hamlet
Certain aspects of Gesta Danorum formed the basis for William Shakespeare's play, Hamlet. It is thought that Shakespeare never read Gesta Danorum, and instead had access to an auxiliary version of the tale describing the downfall of the Prince of Denmark, whose real name - Amleth - was used in anagram by Shakespeare for Hamlet.
Saxo’s version, told of in Book 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In Saxo's version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over Jutland by King Rørik Slyngebond of the Danes. Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik’s daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in Hamlet). Amleth is their first and only child.
Fengi becomes resentful of his brother’s marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father’s murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful king of Jutland. However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare's version just after his uncle's death, in Saxo's version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures.
12th-century history books | Ásatrú texts | Danish chronicles | Danish literature | Germanic mythology | Medieval Latin histories | Sources of Norse mythology | Viking Age
Gesta Danorum ("Deeds of the Danes") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th century author Saxo Grammaticus ("Saxo the Literate", literally "the Grammarian"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark and is an essential source for the nation's early history. It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the history of Estonia and Livonia.
Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of Archbishop Absalon, Gesta Danorum describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century. In addition, Gesta Danorum offers singular reflections on European affairs in the High Middle Ages from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe.
Books
The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1-9, which deal with Norse mythology, and Books 10-16, which deal with medieval history. Book 9 ends with Gorm the Old, the first factual documented King of Denmark. The last three books (14-16), describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against Slavic peoples (the Northern Crusades), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes (Polabian Slavs, Pomeranians) and Slavic paganism. Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple at Rügen Island.
Chronology
When exactly Gesta Danorum was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that Gesta Danorum was not finished before 1208. The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King Canute VI of Denmark subduing Pomerania under Duke Bogislaw I, in 1186. However the preface of the work, dictated to Archbishop Anders Sunesen, mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the Elbe river in 1208.
Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with Absalon's appointment to Archbishop in 1178. Since this book is so large and Absalon has greater importance than King Valdemar I, this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own. It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I's last years and King Canute VI's first years.
It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13. Svend Aagesen's history of Denmark, Brevis Historia Regum Dacie (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about "The king-father and his sons," which would be King Sweyn Estridson, in Books 11, 12, and 13. He would later add the first ten books. This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface.
Manuscripts
The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the Angers Fragment, Lassen Fragment, Kall-Rasmussen Fragment and Plesner Fragment. The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in Saxo’s own handwriting. The other ones are copies from ca. 1275. All four fragments are in the collection of the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, Denmark.
The text has, however, survived. In 1510-1512, Christiern Pedersen, a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo’s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo’s work came from a summary located in Chronica Jutensis, from around 1342, called Compendium Saxonis. It is also in this summary that the name Gesta Danorum is found. The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown.
Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop Birger Gunnersen of Lund, modern Sweden, which he gladly lent him. With the help of printer Jodocus Badius, Gesta Danorum was refined and printed.
Printing
The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo’s works is Christiern Pedersen's Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, March 15, 1514 under the title of Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae ("History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes"). The edition features the following colophon: ...impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana. (the Ides of March, 1514).
The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin:
Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae.
Danish language:
De danske Kongers og Heltes Historie, skrevet I pyntelig Stil for over 300 Aar siden af Saxo Grammaticus, en Sjællandsfar og Provst ved Kirken I Roskilde, og nu for første Gang oplyst ved et Register og omhyggeligt trykt.
English language:
Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a Sjællander and also provost of the church of Roskilde, over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation.
Latin versions
The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen's Latin Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae. There exist a number different translations today, some complete, some partial:
Christiern Pedersen, published 1514, title: Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae
Johannes Oporinus, published 1534, title: Saxonis Grammatici Danorum Historiae Libri XVI
Philip Lonicer, published 1576, title: Danica Historia Libris XVI
Stephan Hansen Stephanius, published 1645, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historiæ Danicæ Libri XVI
Christian Adolph Klotz, published 1771, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historiae Danicae libri XVI
Peter Erasmus Müller, published 1839, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica
Alfred Holder, published 1886, title: Saxonis Grammatici Gesta Danorum
Jørgen Olrik & Hans Ræder, published 1931, title: Saxonis Gesta Danorum
Karsten Friis-Jensen, published 2005, title: Gesta Danorum ISBN 978-87-12-04025-5, ISBN 87-12-04025-8
Danish translations
Christiern Pedersen, never published ca. 1540, Lost
Jon Tursons, never published ca. 1555, Lost
Anders Sørensen Vedel, published 1575, title: Den Danske Krønicke
Sejer Schousbölle, published 1752, title: Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica
Nicolai Grundtvig, published 1818-1822, title: Danmarks Krønike af Saxo Grammaticus
Frederik Winkel Horn, published 1898, title: Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike
Jørgen Olrik, published 1908-1912, title: Sakses Danesaga
Peter Zeeberg, published 2000, title: Saxos Danmarkshistorie ISBN 87-12-03496-7 (complete) ISBN 87-12-03534-3 (vol 1) ISBN 87-12-03535-1 (vol 2)
English translations
Oliver Elton, published 1894, title: The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus
Peter Fisher and Hilda Ellis Davidson, published 1979-1980, title: Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes
Eric Christiansen, published 1980-1981, title: Saxo Grammaticus: Danorum regum heroumque historia, books X-XVI
William F. Hansen, published 1983, title: Saxo Grammaticus and the life of Hamlet
Other translations
Hermann Jantzen, published 1900, title: Saxo Grammaticus. Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte
Ludovica Koch & Maria Adele Cipolla, published 1993, title: Sassone Grammatico: Gesta dei re e degli eroi danesi
Yukio Taniguchi, published 1993, title: Sakuso Guramatikusu: Denmakujin no jiseki
Santiago Ibáñez Lluch, published 1999, title: Saxo Gramático: Historia Danesa
Gesta Danorum is also translated partially in other English, French and German releases.
Hamlet
Certain aspects of Gesta Danorum formed the basis for William Shakespeare's play, Hamlet. It is thought that Shakespeare never read Gesta Danorum, and instead had access to an auxiliary version of the tale describing the downfall of the Prince of Denmark, whose real name - Amleth - was used in anagram by Shakespeare for Hamlet.
Saxo’s version, told of in Book 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In Saxo's version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over Jutland by King Rørik Slyngebond of the Danes. Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik’s daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in Hamlet). Amleth is their first and only child.
Fengi becomes resentful of his brother’s marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father’s murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful king of Jutland. However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare's version just after his uncle's death, in Saxo's version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures.
12th-century history books | Ásatrú texts | Danish chronicles | Danish literature | Germanic mythology | Medieval Latin histories | Sources of Norse mythology | Viking Age
Friday, June 16, 2000
Orpheus and Eurydice
The story of Orpheus and Eurydice, as told by Apollonius of Rhodes, Virgil and Ovid
(and retold by Edith Hamilton in Mythology)
Orpheus: "On his mother's side he was more than mortal. He was the son of one of the Muses and a Tracian prince. His mother gave him the gift of music and Thrace where he grew up fostered it. The Thracians were the most musical of the peoples of Greece. But Orpheus had no rival there or anywhere except the gods alone. There was no limit to his power when he played and sang. No one and nothing could resist him.
In the deep still woods upon the Thracian mountains
Orpheus with his singing lyre led the trees,
Led the wild beasts of the wilderness.
Everything animate and inanimate followed him. He moved the rocks on the hillside and turned the courses of the rivers....
When he first met and how he wooed the maiden he loved, Euridice, we are not told, but it is clear that no maiden he wanted could have resisted the power of his song. They were married, but their joy was brief. Directly after the wedding, as the bride walked in a meadow with her bridesmaids, a viper stung her and she died. Orpheus' grief was overwhelming. He could not endure it. He determined to go down to the world of death and try to bring Eurydice back. He said to himself,
With my song
I will charm Demeter's daughter,
I will charm the Lord of the Dead,
Moving their hearts with my melody.
I will bear her away from Hades.
He dared more than any other man ever dared for his love. He took the fearsome journey to the underworld. There he struck his lyre, and at the sound all that vast multitude were charmed to stillness....
O Gods who rule the dark and silent world,
To you all born of a woman needs must come.
All lovely things at last go down to you.
You are the debtor who is always paid.
A little while we tarry up on earth.
Then we are yours forever and forever.
But I seek one who came to you too soon.
The bud was plucked before the flower bloomed.
I tried to bear my loss. I could not bear it.
Love was too strong a god, O King, you know
If that old tale men tell is true, how once
The flowers saw the rape of Proserpine,
Then weave again for sweet Eurydice
Life's pattern that was taken from the loom
Too quick. See, I ask a little thing,
Only that you will lend, not give, her to me.
She shall be yours when her years' span is full.
No one under the spell of his voice could refuse him anything. He
Drew iron tears down Pluto's cheek,
and made Hell grant what Love did seek.
They summoned Eurydice and gave her to him, but upon one condition: that he would not look back at her as she followed him, until they had reached the upper world. So the two passed through the great doors of Hades to the path which would take them out of the darkness, climbing up and up. He knew that she must be just behind him, but he longed unutterably to give one glance to make sure. But now they were almost there, the blackness was turning gray; now he had stepped out joyfully into the daylight. Then he turned to her. It was too soon; she was still in the cavern. He saw her in the dim light, and he held out his arms to clasp her; but on the instant she was gone. She had slipped back into the darkness. All he heard was one faint word, "Farewell."
Desperately he tried to rush after her and follow her down, but he was not allowed. The gods would not consent to his entering the world of the dead a second time, while he was still alive. He was forced to return to the earth alone, in utter desolation. Then he forsook the company of men. He wandered through the wild solitudes of Thrace, comfortless except for his lyre, playing, always playing, and the rocks and the rivers and the trees heard him gladly, his only companions. But at last a band of Maenads [women] came upon him....They slew the gentle musician, tearing him limb from limb, borne along past the river's mouth on to the Lesbian shore; nor had it suffered any change from the sea when the Muses found it and buried it in the sanctuary of the island. His limbs they gathered and placed in a tomb at the foot of Mount Olympus, and there to this day the nightingales sing more sweetly than anywhere else. "
Here is another version, taken from Thomas Bulfinch and retold by Juliana Podd in Encyclopedia Mythica.
Eurydice and Orpheus were young and in love. So deep was their love that they were practically inseparable. So dependent was their love that each felt they could not live without the other. These young lovers were very happy and spent their time frolicking through the meadows. One day Eurdice was gaily running through a meadow with Orpheus when she was bitten by a serpent. The poison of the sting killed her and she descended to Hades immediately.
Orpheus was son of the great Olympian god Apollo. In many ways Apollo was the god of music and Orpheus was blessed with musical talents. Orpheus was so sad about the loss of his love that he composed music to express the terrible emptiness which pervaded his every breath and movement. He was so desperate and found so little else meaningful, that he decided address Hades. As the overseer of the underworld, Hades heart had to be hard as steel, and so it was. Many approached Hades to beg for loved ones back and as many times were refused. But Orpheus' music was so sweet and so moving that it softened the steel hearted heart of Hades himself. Hades gave permission to Orpheus to bring Eurydice back to the surface of the earth to enjoy the light of day. There was only one condition--Orpheus was not to look back as he ascended. He was to trust that Eurydice was immediately behind him. It was a long way back up and just as Orpheus had almost finished that last part of the trek, he looked behind him to make sure Eurydice was still with him. At that very moment, she was snatched back because he did not trust that she was there. When you hear music which mourns lost love, it is Orpheus' spirit who guides the hand of the musicians who play it.
http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/webtexts/eurydice/eurydicemyth.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurydice
Friday, March 5, 1999
Oceanus (Greek)
Oceanus
Oceanus is the unending stream of water encircling the world. Together with his wife Tethys produced the rivers and the three thousand ocean nymphs.
Oceanus is the unending stream of water encircling the world. Together with his wife Tethys produced the rivers and the three thousand ocean nymphs.
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